Study illuminates the ecological footprint of health electronics

Contents

For the first time, researchers have systematically investigated the ecological footprint of wearables for the healthcare sector. The results show: It's not plastics, but the electronics themselves that are the main problem.

Wearable health electronics such as continuous glucose monitors, ECG patches, or mobile blood pressure monitors are becoming increasingly widespread. Researchers from the University of Chicago and Cornell University have now investigated the environmental impact of these devices – from raw material extraction to disposal – in a study published in Nature.

Projection: Up to 2 billion devices annually

The scientists analyzed in their study four types of devices: non-invasive continuous glucose monitors (nCGM), continuous ECG monitors (CEM), blood pressure monitors (BPM), and wearable ultrasound devices (POCUS). For their projections, they used the Bass diffusion model, an established method for predicting technology adoption.

In the moderate scenario, researchers estimate nearly 2 billion devices annually by 2050 – a 42-fold increase compared to today. The high number is primarily due to the short lifespan of many devices: a glucose monitor, for example, is disposed of and replaced after 14 days. A single user thus consumes around 26 devices per year.

However, the uncertainty of the projection is considerable. The difference between the conservative and aggressive scenarios is a factor of 12 – from 0.5 to 6 billion devices annually.

1 to 6 kilograms of CO₂ per device

For the environmental assessment, the researchers used a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), which covers all phases from raw material extraction through manufacturing and use to disposal. The measure for climate impact is the Global Warming Potential (GWP), expressed in CO₂ equivalents. This converts the impact of various greenhouse gases into their CO₂ effect.

The results in detail:

Extrapolated to the projected unit numbers, the moderate scenario results in annual emissions of 3.4 million tons of CO₂ equivalent by 2050.

Printed circuit board dominates the balance sheet

A key finding of the study: The largest portion of the environmental burden is not attributable to the casing or packaging, but to the flexible printed circuit board (FPCB) with its electronic components. In a glucose monitor, this assembly accounts for 96 percent of the total CO₂ footprint. Integrated circuits (ICs) alone are responsible for 63 percent.

Semiconductor manufacturing is energy- and material-intensive. Gold, used for contacts and traces in ICs, is particularly significant. According to the study, gold mining causes about 49,000 kg of CO₂ equivalent per kilogram – more than a hundred times that of copper or aluminum. In addition, gold extraction has significant impacts on ecosystems.

Plastic replacement yields little

The researchers investigated various strategies for reducing the environmental impact. The results contradict common assumptions: Replacing conventional plastics with biodegradable alternatives such as polylactic acid (PLA), cellulose, or starch improves the CO₂ balance by only 2 to 8 percent.

Replacing gold with other metals such as silver, copper, or aluminum would be significantly more effective. The researchers estimate the potential savings at up to 30 percent for the CO₂ footprint and over 60 percent for ecotoxicity. The lower corrosion resistance of these metals plays hardly any role in short-lived, encapsulated disposable devices.

Modular design as the most effective measure

According to the study, the greatest effect would be achieved by a modular device design. In a glucose monitor, the lifespan is not limited by the electronics, but by the enzyme sensor, which becomes inaccurate after about two weeks. Nevertheless, the entire device is disposed of.

If only the sensor and battery were replaced and the electronics reused, the CO₂ footprint per usage cycle could be reduced by more than 60 percent. Tripling the lifespan of the control unit would bring similar savings.

The study also highlights the e-waste problem. By 2050, the investigated device types could generate between 100,000 and 1.3 million tons of electronic waste. The small, complex devices would often end up in household waste instead of being properly disposed of.

According to the calculations, an intensive user of ECG patches produces 886 grams of electronic waste per year – more than the global average for small IT devices like smartphones and routers combined (570 grams).

Limitations of the study

The researchers themselves point out methodological limitations. The analysis covers the direct environmental impacts of the devices, but not systemic effects. For example, whether wearables replace conventional doctor visits or other devices, thereby saving emissions, was not investigated.

Furthermore, the data basis for some components, such as biomolecules in sensors, is incomplete. Long-term projections are subject to considerable uncertainties, as they depend on factors that are difficult to predict, such as adoption rates, regulatory developments, and technological breakthroughs.

The study was published in Nature on December 31, 2025, under the title "Quantifying the global eco-footprint of wearable healthcare electronics".

(mack)